Governors of Mizoram: From Union Territory to Statehood

 The office of the Governor of Mizoram has evolved alongside the constitutional and administrative development of the state. Before attaining full statehood in 1987, Mizoram was administered as a Union Territory, headed by Lieutenant Governors. Since becoming a state, Mizoram has had a succession of Governors who have played an important constitutional role in the functioning of the state government. The Governor serves as the constitutional head of the state and is appointed by the President of India.

 

The Lieutenant Governors of Mizoram

Mizoram became a Union Territory in January 1972, following its separation from Assam. The first Lieutenant Governor was Shri S.P. Mukherjee, who served from April 1972 to June 1974. He was followed by S.K. Chhibbar, N.P. Mathur, S.N. Kohli, H.S. Dubey and H. Saikia. H. Saikia continued in office when Mizoram attained statehood in February 1987 and became its first Governor. 

The transition from Union Territory to state marked a significant stage in Mizoram's political and constitutional history. The official residence of the Lieutenant Governor, known as Raj Niwas, was subsequently renamed Raj Bhavan after statehood. 

Governors After Statehood

Mizoram became the 23rd state of the Indian Union on February 20, 1987. H. Saikia served as the first Governor of the newly formed state until April 1989. He was followed by General K.V. Krishna Rao as additional Governor for a brief period, and then by Capt. W.A. Sangma. Subsequent Governors included Swaraj Kaushal, P.R. Kyndiah, Siddheshwar Prasad, Arun Prasad Mukherjee, Anandam Padmanaban and Ved Prakash Marwah. 

During the 2000s, Mizoram was served by Governors such as Amolak Rattan Kohli, Lt. Gen. M.M. Lakhera and Vakkom Purushothaman. Kamla Beniwal, Vinod Kumar Duggal, Krishant Kant Paul and Aziz Qureshi were among those who held the office for shorter periods, including additional-charge arrangements. Lt. Gen. Nirbhay Sharma subsequently served from 2015 to 2018. Recent Governors

The later period saw Kummanam Rajasekharan, Jagdish Mukhi, P.S. Sreedharan Pillai and Hari Babu Kambhampati serve as Governors. Kambhampati assumed office in 2021 and continued until January 2025, apart from a brief period when Indra Sena Reddy Nallu held additional charge in September–October 2024. 

General (Dr.) Vijay Kumar Singh, PVSM, AVSM, YSM (Retd.), became the 25th Governor of Mizoram on January 16, 2025. He was appointed by the President of India following the transfer of Hari Babu Kambhampati as Governor of Odisha. 

Constitutional Role

The Governor occupies an important position in Mizoram's parliamentary system. The office represents the constitutional framework of the state while the elected government exercises executive authority. Over the decades, the succession of Governors has reflected Mizoram's transition from a Union Territory to a full-fledged state and its continuing integration within India's federal structure.

Rhythms of Heritage: Exploring the Folk Dances of Nagaland

 Nagaland, a culturally vibrant state in northeastern India, is home to a rich tapestry of indigenous traditions and tribal identities. Among its most expressive cultural forms are folk dances, which serve as a living repository of history, beliefs, and social values. Performed during festivals, rituals, and community gatherings, these dances are not merely artistic expressions but also reflections of the socio-cultural fabric of the Naga tribes.

 

Cultural Significance of Folk Dances

Folk dances in Nagaland are deeply intertwined with the everyday life and traditions of its people. Each dance narrates stories of valor, agricultural practices, courtship, and spiritual beliefs. These performances often mark important occasions such as harvest festivals, warrior commemorations, and seasonal celebrations. Through rhythmic movements and symbolic gestures, the dances reinforce communal bonds and preserve oral traditions that have been passed down through generations. 

Prominent Folk Dances of Nagaland 

War Dances

War dances are among the most striking forms of Naga folk traditions. Performed primarily by male dancers, these dances depict the bravery, discipline, and martial skills of warriors. Characterized by vigorous movements, synchronized steps, and loud chants, war dances recreate scenes of battle and victory. Dancers often wear traditional attire adorned with feathers, headgear, and weapons, enhancing the dramatic effect of the performance. 

Zeliang Dance

The Zeliang dance is performed by the Zeliang tribe and is typically associated with festivals and celebratory occasions. This dance emphasizes unity and harmony, with participants moving in coordinated patterns. The rhythmic beats of drums and the melodic tunes of indigenous instruments accompany the dancers, creating a vibrant and engaging atmosphere. 

Chang Lo (Sua Lua) Dance

The Chang Lo dance, also known as Sua Lua, is performed by the Chang tribe to celebrate victory over enemies. It is traditionally staged during the Naknyulem festival. The dance involves both men and women, who form circles and perform rhythmic steps while singing folk songs. The performance reflects themes of triumph, gratitude, and communal pride. 

Kuki Dance 

The Kuki dance is another significant folk form, marked by graceful movements and vibrant costumes. It is performed during festivals and social gatherings, often symbolizing joy and celebration. The dancers exhibit fluid coordination, accompanied by traditional music that enhances the aesthetic appeal of the performance. 

Costumes and Musical Elements

The visual appeal of Naga folk dances is greatly enhanced by traditional costumes and musical instruments. Dancers wear intricately designed shawls, bead necklaces, and distinctive headgear that signify tribal identity and status. Musical accompaniment typically includes drums, bamboo instruments, and indigenous wind instruments, which provide rhythm and depth to the performances. The combination of attire and music creates a multisensory cultural experience. 

Preservation and Contemporary Relevance

In recent years, efforts have been made to preserve and promote the folk dances of Nagaland. Cultural festivals, such as the Hornbill Festival, provide a platform for showcasing these traditional art forms to a wider audience. Despite the influence of modernization, these dances continue to hold relevance as symbols of identity and heritage. They also contribute to cultural tourism and foster a sense of pride among the younger generation. 

Folk dances of Nagaland represent a dynamic blend of tradition, history, and artistic expression. They are not only performances but also vital cultural practices that sustain the identity of various Naga tribes. As these dances continue to evolve while retaining their essence, they remain an enduring testament to the rich cultural heritage of the region.

Sikkimese Language

 

The Sikkimese language, also known as Bhutia or Drenjongke, is a Tibeto-Burman language primarily spoken in the Indian state of Sikkim. It forms an integral part of the region's cultural fabric, preserving the rich heritage of the Bhutia community while reflecting the diverse linguistic traditions of the Eastern Himalayas. 

Historical Roots

Sikkimese traces its roots to the Tibeto-Burman language family, closely related to Tibetan and Dzongkha. The language is believed to have originated alongside the migration of the Bhutia people from Tibet to Sikkim in the 13th century. Over time, it became a medium for oral traditions, religious practices, and cultural expression within the Bhutia community. The use of the Tibetan script in written Sikkimese, known as the Sambhota script, underscores the linguistic and cultural connections between Sikkim and Tibet. 

The historical significance of Sikkimese is also tied to the Namgyal dynasty, which ruled Sikkim from the 17th to the 19th centuries. During this period, the language flourished as part of the royal court's official proceedings and religious texts, often in connection with Tibetan Buddhism. 

Contemporary Use

Sikkimese remains one of the official languages of Sikkim, alongside Nepali, Lepcha, and English. It is primarily spoken by the Bhutia community and serves as a vital means of communication in everyday life, particularly in rural areas. However, the language faces challenges related to declining usage among younger generations, who often prefer Nepali or English for educational and professional purposes. 

Efforts to preserve and promote Sikkimese have been initiated by the state government and local organizations. These include introducing Sikkimese as an optional subject in schools, conducting language workshops, and developing digital resources to support learning. Such measures aim to ensure that the language continues to thrive as a marker of cultural identity. 

Cultural Significance

The cultural significance of Sikkimese lies in its role as a repository of the Bhutia community's history, spirituality, and artistic traditions. Many religious texts and hymns central to Tibetan Buddhism are written and recited in Sikkimese, reinforcing its spiritual importance. The language is also used in traditional songs, folk tales, and oral narratives that transmit the region’s values and customs across generations. 

Moreover, festivals like Losar (Tibetan New Year) and Pang Lhabsol, which honor Mount Kanchenjunga, are celebrated with rituals and performances in Sikkimese. These events provide a platform for showcasing the language's richness and its connection to the community's collective identity. 

Challenges and Preservation

Despite its cultural importance, Sikkimese is classified as a vulnerable language by UNESCO. Urbanization, globalization, and the dominance of other languages pose significant challenges to its survival. Addressing this requires continued collaboration among linguistic scholars, government agencies, and community leaders to promote its use and documentation. 

By preserving the Sikkimese language, the Bhutia community not only safeguards their linguistic heritage but also strengthens the cultural diversity of India. Its survival is crucial for maintaining the historical and spiritual legacy of the Eastern Himalayas.

 

Chheih Lam: A Traditional Dance of Mizoram

 

The northeastern state of Mizoram in India is known for its vibrant cultural heritage, and one of its most celebrated traditional dances is Chheih Lam. This dance form reflects the rich history and communal spirit of the Mizo people, offering insight into their way of life and cultural values. 

Chheih Lam traces its origins to the traditional practice of social gatherings in Mizoram, particularly around a place known as the Zawlbuk, a central meeting house in Mizo villages. During these gatherings, the community would engage in singing and dancing as a way to celebrate victories, mark important occasions, or simply enjoy fellowship. 

This dance became more structured and symbolic over time, incorporating rhythmic movements accompanied by melodious songs, often improvised to narrate the experiences of individuals or the community. Chheih Lam was traditionally performed at the conclusion of significant events, such as harvests or festivals, symbolizing joy and unity. 

The Performance

Chheih Lam is typically performed in a circle, with dancers moving gracefully to the rhythm of a traditional song called Chheih Hla, which is sung by a group of vocalists. The dancers sway and move their hands in harmony with the beat, often incorporating claps or gestures to emphasize specific parts of the song. 

Musical accompaniment is minimal but crucial, with traditional instruments such as the khuang (drum) and the rawchhem (bamboo flute) providing the rhythm. The lyrics of Chheih Hla often recount stories of bravery, romance, or significant events, making each performance unique and deeply personal to the community. 

Cultural Significance

Chheih Lam holds immense cultural importance in Mizoram. It is more than a form of entertainment; it serves as a means of preserving oral traditions and passing down stories through generations. The dance fosters a sense of togetherness, as participation is open to all members of the community, regardless of age or social status. 

The dance also reflects the Mizo philosophy of Tlawmngaihna, a code of selflessness and community service that forms the foundation of their way of life. Through the shared experience of Chheih Lam, participants and spectators alike are reminded of their collective identity and cultural roots. 

Modern Relevance

Although Chheih Lam originated as a traditional dance, it continues to hold relevance in modern Mizoram. It is a central feature of the Chapchar Kut, Mizoram's spring festival, and other cultural events. The dance is also performed at official celebrations and cultural exchange programs, symbolizing the enduring legacy of Mizo traditions. 

Efforts by cultural organizations and the government have further ensured the preservation and promotion of Chheih Lam. Schools and colleges in Mizoram often include this dance in their curriculum, encouraging younger generations to embrace their cultural heritage. 

Chheih Lam is a reflection of the rich cultural tapestry of folk dances of Mizoram, representing the community’s history, values, and traditions. Its enduring appeal lies in its ability to bring people together, creating a bridge between the past and the present. As Mizoram continues to evolve, Chheih Lam remains a cherished reminder of its cultural identity, celebrated by all who partake in its joyous rhythm. 

Folktales of Meghalaya

 

The northeastern state of Meghalaya in India is renowned for its rich cultural heritage, deeply rooted in oral traditions. Among the most significant aspects of this cultural legacy are the folktales passed down through generations. These narratives, often intertwined with the daily lives of the indigenous communities, not only serve as a means of entertainment but also play a crucial role in preserving the history, values, and beliefs of the people. This article delves into the historical and cultural significance of the folktales of Meghalaya.

 

Historical Significance

Folktales in Meghalaya have historically served as an essential vehicle for preserving the oral traditions of the state's indigenous tribes, particularly the Khasi, Garo, and Jaintia communities. Before the advent of written records, these stories were the primary means of passing down knowledge from one generation to the next. They encapsulated the wisdom, experiences, and historical events that shaped the community, ensuring that the younger generations remained connected to their roots. 

Reflection of Historical Events

Many folktales of Meghalaya also offer a glimpse into the region's past, reflecting historical events, migrations, and conflicts. For instance, stories of the Khasi Hills often recount the arrival of ancestors, the establishment of clans, and the battles fought to defend their land. These tales, while sometimes embellished with mythical elements, provide valuable insights into the historical landscape of Meghalaya and the experiences of its people. 

Cultural Significance

Folktales in Meghalaya are not merely stories; they are tools for imparting moral lessons and values. These narratives often revolve around themes of justice, bravery, loyalty, and respect for nature. Through the actions of characters, both human and supernatural, listeners are taught the importance of virtues such as honesty, humility, and compassion. In this way, folktales function as an informal educational system, guiding the community's ethical conduct. 

Preservation of Language and Dialects

The oral tradition of storytelling has also played a vital role in preserving the languages and dialects of Meghalaya's tribes. In a region with multiple languages, including Khasi, Garo, and Pnar, folktales have ensured that these languages remain vibrant and relevant. The use of indigenous languages in storytelling helps maintain linguistic diversity and allows for the continued transmission of cultural knowledge. 

Strengthening of Cultural Identity

Folktales contribute significantly to the cultural identity of the people of Meghalaya. By recounting tales of origin, mythical creatures, and supernatural occurrences, these stories reinforce a shared sense of belonging and continuity within the community. They serve as a link between the past and present, allowing individuals to connect with their heritage and understand their place within the broader cultural landscape. 

The folktales of Meghalaya are more than just stories; they are a vital part of the state's cultural and historical fabric. Through the preservation of oral traditions, the reflection of historical events, the transmission of moral values, and the strengthening of cultural identity, these narratives have played an indispensable role in shaping the community's collective consciousness. As modern influences continue to permeate traditional societies, the preservation and promotion of these folktales remain essential in ensuring that the rich cultural heritage of Meghalaya endures for future generations.

Northeast India-Myanmar Pine Forests

 

The Northeast India-Myanmar Pine Forests represent a vital ecological region, encompassing parts of Northeast India and Myanmar. This unique ecosystem plays a crucial role in biodiversity conservation and serves as a habitat for numerous endemic species. 

Northeast India

In Northeast India, the pine forests are predominantly found in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Mizoram. These forests primarily thrive in the hilly regions and high-altitude zones, where the climate is conducive to the growth of various pine species, such as Pinus kesiya and Pinus roxburghii. 

Myanmar

In Myanmar, these forests are mainly located in the northern and western regions, including parts of Kachin, Sagaing, and Chin states. Similar to Northeast India, the pine forests in Myanmar are situated in hilly terrains, which provide the ideal conditions for pine tree growth. 

Ecological Significance

The Northeast India-Myanmar Pine Forests are rich in biodiversity. They support a wide variety of flora and fauna, many of which are endemic to the region. The forest floor is often covered with a thick layer of pine needles, which provides a unique habitat for numerous species of insects, fungi, and understory plants. 

Habitat for Endangered Species

These forests serve as critical habitats for several endangered and vulnerable species. Notable among them are the Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), the Hoolock Gibbon (Hoolock hoolock), and various species of pheasants. The preservation of these forests is essential for the survival of these species, which are often found only in these specific ecological niches.

Climate Regulation 

Pine forests play a significant role in climate regulation. They act as carbon sinks, absorbing large amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and thereby mitigating the effects of climate change. Additionally, these forests influence local weather patterns and contribute to maintaining the hydrological cycle in the region. 

Conservation Challenges

One of the primary threats to the Northeast India-Myanmar Pine Forests is deforestation. Logging, both legal and illegal, poses a significant risk to these forests. The demand for timber and land for agriculture has led to large-scale clearing of forest areas, which in turn threatens the biodiversity and ecological balance of the region. 

Forest Fires

Forest fires are another major concern. The accumulation of dry pine needles creates a highly flammable environment, making these forests susceptible to wildfires. These fires can cause extensive damage to the forest ecosystem, destroy wildlife habitats, and lead to soil erosion. 

Climate Change

Climate change poses a long-term threat to the Northeast India-Myanmar Pine Forests. Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can alter the growth and distribution of pine species. Additionally, extreme weather events, such as cyclones and droughts, can further stress these ecosystems. 

Conservation Efforts

Several protected areas and wildlife sanctuaries have been established within the Northeast India-Myanmar Pine Forests to safeguard their ecological integrity. These areas provide a safe haven for endangered species and help preserve the natural habitat.

Community Involvement 

Engaging local communities in conservation efforts is crucial. Many initiatives focus on promoting sustainable land-use practices and raising awareness about the importance of forest conservation. Community-based forest management programs have shown promise in reducing deforestation and enhancing biodiversity conservation. 

Research and Monitoring

Ongoing research and monitoring are essential for understanding the dynamics of these forests and developing effective conservation strategies. Studies on forest ecology, species distribution, and the impacts of climate change provide valuable insights that inform conservation policies and practices. 

The Northeast India-Myanmar Pine Forests are of immense ecological importance, supporting a diverse array of species and playing a key role in climate regulation. Despite facing numerous challenges, concerted conservation efforts can help protect these valuable ecosystems for future generations.

Festivals of Mizoram

 

Festivals hold significant cultural, social, and religious importance in the northeastern state of Mizoram, India. Among the diverse array of festivals celebrated throughout the year, Chapchar Kut, Pawl Kut, Mim Kut, and the Anthurium Festival stand out as prominent cultural events, each with its unique traditions and rituals. 

Chapchar Kut, one of the most widely celebrated festivals in Mizoram, marks the onset of spring and the clearing of forests for jhum cultivation. Typically held in March, it is a time of joyous celebration marked by lively folk dances, traditional music performances, and feasting. The festival showcases the rich cultural heritage of the Mizo people, with communities coming together to participate in various activities, including bamboo pole climbing and Cheraw, a traditional bamboo dance. 

Pawl Kut, another significant festival, is observed in December to commemorate the completion of the harvest season. As an agricultural society, Mizoram places great importance on Pawl Kut, which symbolizes gratitude towards the land and its bounties. The festival is characterized by elaborate feasts, cultural performances, and traditional games. It serves as a platform for fostering community cohesion and reinforcing the cultural identity of the Mizo people. 

Mim Kut, celebrated in August/September, is dedicated to remembering and honoring departed souls. It is a time for families to come together to pay homage to their ancestors through offerings of food, music, and dance. Mim Kut is marked by rituals that emphasize the continuity of life and the importance of maintaining familial bonds across generations. The festival also serves as an occasion for storytelling, with elders passing down oral traditions and legends to the younger members of the community. 

The Anthurium Festival, held annually in September, celebrates Mizoram's vibrant horticultural industry, particularly the cultivation of Anthurium flowers. It provides a platform for farmers and growers to showcase their produce, with colorful displays of flowers and ornamental plants. The festival also features exhibitions, competitions, and cultural performances, attracting visitors from across the region and beyond. Beyond its economic significance, the Anthurium Festival serves to promote environmental awareness and sustainable agriculture practices among the local populace. 

These festivals play a crucial role in preserving and promoting Mizoram's cultural heritage while fostering social cohesion and community spirit. They provide an opportunity for people to come together, irrespective of religious or ethnic differences, and celebrate their shared identity as Mizos. Moreover, these regional festivals serve as a reminder of the close relationship between the Mizo people and the natural environment, emphasizing the importance of conservation and sustainable development. 

The festivals of Mizoram, including Chapchar Kut, Pawl Kut, Mim Kut, and the Anthurium Festival, reflect the rich cultural tapestry and deep-rooted traditions of the Mizo people. They serve as occasions for celebration, reflection, and communal bonding, reaffirming the values that have sustained Mizoram's unique identity through the ages.

Ngada Festival

 

The Ngada Festival of Nagaland stands as a paramount cultural event among the Rengma Naga tribe, marking the culmination of the harvest season with a vibrant display of gratitude, communal joy, and cultural heritage. Lasting for eight days, the festival serves as a time-honored tradition deeply rooted in agricultural practices, social cohesion, and spiritual reverence. 

Commencing just after the harvest, the Ngada Festival is characterized by a profound sense of thanksgiving and jubilation. Its significance lies in acknowledging the bountiful yield reaped from the toil of the land and the collective efforts of the community. As the village high priest, known as Phensengu, announces the commencement of the festival, echoing his proclamation throughout the village, preparations ensue for days filled with revelry and communal bonding. 

For the Rengma tribe, the Ngada Festival holds a revered status as the pinnacle of their cultural calendar, earning the title of the "mother of all festivals." Central to its observance is the role of women, symbolized by the ritualistic act of the mother of each household tasting the newly harvested grains before anyone else. This tradition not only honors the matriarchal lineage but also ensures the appeasement of ancestral spirits, whose blessings are sought for prosperity and abundance in the coming year. 

The festival's customs underscore the importance of communal harmony and collective responsibility. Women play a pivotal role in the preparations, tasked with creating delicacies and brewing zu, a traditional rice beer, to sustain the festivities. Deviation from these customs is viewed as a transgression, potentially inviting the ire of the spirits and disrupting the equilibrium of the community. 

A highlight of the Ngada Festival is the Ngada Kenyhundzon ceremony, which epitomizes the essence of camaraderie and solidarity among the Rengma people. During this ritual, all able-bodied men don their war and ceremonial attire, embarking on a procession to visit each Rensi (Morung) in the village. Accompanied by women adorned in traditional fineries and bearing baskets laden with meat and rice beer, the procession symbolizes unity and collective strength. Folk dances of Nagaland, performed by various tribal groups, are an integral part of this festival.

Generosity and hospitality are hallmarks of the Ngada Festival, as visitors are welcomed with open arms and treated to the choicest delicacies. It is a time for feasting, laughter, and heartfelt camaraderie, where the bonds of kinship are reaffirmed and cherished. 

The Ngada Festival serves as more than a mere celebration of the harvest; it is a testament to the rich cultural heritage and communal ethos of the Rengma Naga tribe. Through its customs and traditions, this festival of Nagaland not only honors the past but also strengthens the bonds that bind the community together, ensuring a prosperous and harmonious future for generations to come.

Mopin Festival

The Mopin Festival is an integral part of the cultural tapestry of Arunachal Pradesh, a northeastern state of India known for its ethnic diversity and vibrant traditions. Celebrated primarily by the Galo tribe, the festival holds significant cultural importance, serving as a platform for fostering community bonds, expressing gratitude to deities, and preserving indigenous customs.

 

The Galo tribe, one of the major indigenous communities inhabiting the West Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh, observes the Mopin Festival with great enthusiasm and reverence. Typically held in the month of April, the festival marks the arrival of spring and is a time for rejoicing after the toils of the agricultural season. It is a period of renewal and rejuvenation, both in nature and in the lives of the Galo people. 

Central to the Mopin Festival is the invocation of the deity of prosperity and fertility, known as Mopin Ane. The Galo people believe that by appeasing Mopin Ane through rituals and offerings, they can ensure a bountiful harvest and protection from evil spirits. The festival commences with the construction of an altar, adorned with colorful decorations and symbolic offerings, where prayers are offered to Mopin Ane for blessings and prosperity. 

A distinctive feature of the Mopin Festival is the performance of traditional dances and songs by the Galo community. These cultural expressions serve as a means of preserving the tribe's heritage and transmitting it to younger generations. The rhythmic beats of the drums and the graceful movements of the dancers create an atmosphere of joy and festivity, captivating both participants and spectators alike. 

Another noteworthy aspect of the Mopin Festival is the exchange of traditional handicrafts and culinary delights among community members. Handwoven textiles, intricately crafted ornaments, and delicious local delicacies are exchanged as symbols of goodwill and camaraderie. This exchange not only strengthens social ties but also provides an economic boost to local artisans and vendors. 

The Mopin Festival also serves as a platform for resolving conflicts and fostering reconciliation within the community. It is a time when grievances are set aside, and differences are set aside in the spirit of unity and solidarity. Through collective prayers and rituals, the Galo people seek harmony and peace within their society, reinforcing the bonds of kinship and mutual respect. 

In recent years, efforts have been made to promote the Mopin Festival as a tourist attraction, thereby showcasing the rich cultural heritage of Arunachal Pradesh to the outside world. Visitors from across the country and beyond are welcomed to partake in the festivities, providing them with a unique opportunity to witness the traditional customs and rituals of the Galo tribe up close. 

The Mopin Festival stands as a testament to the cultural richness and diversity of Arunachal Pradesh. Beyond its ceremonial aspects, the festival embodies the values of community, spirituality, and tradition that are deeply ingrained in the lives of the Galo people. As it continues to evolve and adapt to changing times, the Mopin Festival remains a cherished occasion for celebrating identity, heritage, and the enduring spirit of the indigenous tribes of Arunachal Pradesh.

Art and Craft of Arunachal Pradesh

 

Arunachal Pradesh, the northeastern frontier of India, is a melting pot of diverse cultures and traditions, reflected vividly in its unique art and craft forms. The state's artistic heritage is deeply intertwined with its cultural diversity, with each community contributing to the vibrant tapestry that is Arunachali art. From bamboo and cane craft to carpet-weaving, painting, wood carving, jewelry making, and ivory craft, the art and craft of Arunachal Pradesh stand as a testament to the skilled hands and rich cultural heritage of its people. 

Bamboo and cane craft are integral components of Arunachal Pradesh's artistic legacy. Skilled artisans adeptly transform these natural resources into functional and aesthetically pleasing items. Baskets, mats, furniture, and even traditional headgear are crafted with precision and ingenuity, showcasing the seamless blend of utility and artistry. The intricate patterns and designs reflect the cultural ethos of the tribes, making each piece a unique representation of Arunachal's cultural diversity. 

Carpet-weaving is another significant art form in Arunachal Pradesh, with the Monpa tribe particularly renowned for their expertise. Using traditional techniques passed down through generations, Monpa weavers create exquisite carpets with intricate patterns and vibrant colors. These carpets often depict scenes from daily life, mythological stories, or symbols of religious significance. The meticulous craftsmanship and attention to detail make Arunachali carpets highly sought after, both locally and internationally. 

Painting, an art form that transcends boundaries, has found a distinctive expression in Arunachal Pradesh. The state boasts a rich tradition of tribal art, with each tribe contributing its unique style and symbolism. Thangka painting, practiced by the Monpas and Sherdukpens, involves intricate depictions of Buddhist deities and spiritual themes. The Apatanis are known for their vibrant murals, showcasing a keen sense of color and design. Through these paintings, Arunachali artists preserve and perpetuate their cultural narratives. 

Wood carving in Arunachal Pradesh is a craft that combines artistic finesse with practical utility. Skilled artisans carve intricate designs on wooden panels, doors, and furniture, reflecting the cultural motifs of their respective tribes. The carvings often depict animals, mythological figures, or scenes from tribal life, serving as both functional items and cultural artifacts. The craftsmanship in Arunachali wood carving is not merely aesthetic but also a manifestation of the deep connection between the people and their natural surroundings. 

Jewelry making is an art form that showcases the metalworking skills of the tribes in Arunachal Pradesh. Silver and brass are commonly used to create traditional jewelry pieces adorned with intricate patterns and symbolic motifs. Each piece of jewelry carries cultural significance, representing the wearer's identity, social status, or belonging to a specific tribe. The craftsmanship involved in jewelry making reflects the meticulous attention to detail and the reverence for tradition within Arunachali communities. 

Ivory craft, though now facing stringent regulations due to conservation concerns, has been a traditional art form in Arunachal Pradesh. Skilled artisans meticulously carve ivory into intricate sculptures, depicting religious and mythological themes. However, with increasing awareness about the need for wildlife conservation, the focus is shifting towards alternative materials, ensuring the preservation of this age-old craft without compromising on ethical considerations. 

The art and craft of Arunachal Pradesh embody the essence of its diverse cultural heritage. From the utilitarian bamboo and cane craft to the intricate carpet-weaving, painting, wood carving, jewelry making, and the traditional ivory craft, each form reflects the deep-rooted connection between art and culture in this northeastern state of India. As these traditional crafts continue to evolve, they serve as a testament to the resilience and creativity of the people of Arunachal Pradesh, preserving their heritage for generations to come.

Chief Ministers of Mizoram

Mizoram, a northeastern state of India, has witnessed significant political and developmental strides under the leadership of various Chief Ministers over the years. The state, known for its rich cultural heritage and diverse population, has been shaped by the vision and contributions of its past leaders. In this article, we delve into the history of Mizoram's Chief Ministers, highlighting their notable contributions and shedding light on the ongoing developments under the current Chief Minister, Lalduhawma, who assumed office in December 2023, representing the Zoram People's Movement Party.

 

The political landscape of Mizoram has been marked by a series of transitions, and the role of Chief Ministers has been pivotal in steering the state towards progress. The first Chief Minister of Mizoram, Ch. Chhunga, assumed office in 1972 when Mizoram attained statehood. His tenure was crucial in laying the foundation for the state's administrative structure and governance. Chhunga's emphasis on infrastructure development and social welfare initiatives set the tone for subsequent leaders. 

Lal Thanhawla, a prominent figure in Mizoram's political history, served as Chief Minister for multiple terms. His tenure, spanning over several years, witnessed significant strides in education and healthcare. The state saw the establishment of new educational institutions and healthcare facilities under his leadership. Thanhawla's commitment to social welfare programs aimed at upliftment of the underprivileged further endeared him to the people. 

Zoramthanga, another stalwart in Mizoram politics, served as Chief Minister multiple times, leaving an indelible mark on the state's development. His tenure was characterized by a focus on economic growth and infrastructure development. Zoramthanga's initiatives aimed at improving connectivity and creating a conducive environment for business and commerce contributed to Mizoram's economic progress. 

The leadership baton then passed on to Pu Lal Thanhawla once again, who continued to build on the foundations laid by his earlier terms. During his subsequent tenures, Thanhawla concentrated on sustainable development and environmental conservation. His government implemented policies to balance economic growth with ecological sustainability, reflecting a forward-looking approach. 

In December 2023, Lalduhawma assumed the position of Chief Minister, representing the Zoram People's Movement Party. His leadership comes at a crucial juncture, and early signs indicate a commitment to continue the trajectory of progress set by his predecessors. Lalduhawma's administration has prioritized infrastructure development, with a focus on improving road connectivity to facilitate economic activities and enhance accessibility to remote areas. 

Under Lalduhawma's leadership, there has been a renewed emphasis on healthcare, with the establishment of new medical facilities and initiatives to strengthen the healthcare system. Additionally, the government has implemented measures to promote skill development and employment generation, aligning with the broader goal of fostering inclusive growth. 

The present Chief Minister has also worked towards strengthening governance and ensuring transparency in administration. Initiatives to digitize government processes and enhance citizen services reflect a commitment to efficient and accountable governance. 

The Chief Ministers of Mizoram have played instrumental roles in shaping the state's destiny. From the early years of statehood to the present day, each leader has left an indelible mark through their contributions to infrastructure, education, healthcare, and overall socio-economic development. Lalduhawma's tenure represents a continuation of this legacy, with a focus on sustainable development and inclusive growth. As Mizoram moves forward, the state can draw inspiration from its past leaders while embracing the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead.

Chief Ministers of Arunachal Pradesh

 

Arunachal Pradesh, nestled in the northeastern part of India, has witnessed a succession of leaders who have played pivotal roles in shaping the destiny of the state. Since its inception as a union territory in 1972 and subsequent elevation to statehood in 1987, Arunachal Pradesh has been led by a series of Chief Ministers who have left an indelible mark on the socio-economic and political landscape of the region.

 

The inaugural Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh was Prem Khandu Thungon, who assumed office in 1975. Thungon's tenure was marked by efforts to establish administrative structures and promote developmental initiatives. However, his term was relatively short-lived, paving the way for a succession of leaders who would guide the state through various phases of growth and challenges. 

Subsequent Chief Ministers, including Tomo Riba, Gegong Apang, and Mukut Mithi, focused on bolstering infrastructure, education, and healthcare. Riba, who assumed office in 1977, played a crucial role in laying the groundwork for the state's development. His emphasis on education set the stage for the literacy-centric policies that later leaders would continue to prioritize. 

Gegong Apang, the longest-serving Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh, held office for multiple terms from 1980 to 1999. Under his leadership, the state experienced significant strides in infrastructure development, with a focus on road connectivity and rural electrification. Apang's tenure also witnessed efforts to preserve the rich cultural heritage of the diverse tribal communities in the region. 

Mukut Mithi, who succeeded Apang, continued the momentum of developmental initiatives. His tenure saw advancements in the education sector, with a particular focus on improving the quality of schools and expanding access to higher education. Mithi's administration also concentrated on sustainable economic growth, promoting sectors like agriculture and tourism. 

In the more recent past, Nabam Tuki and Kalikho Pul held the reins of Arunachal Pradesh. Tuki, who became Chief Minister in 2011, worked towards enhancing connectivity, improving healthcare facilities, and addressing issues related to tribal welfare. Kalikho Pul, who succeeded Tuki, focused on anti-corruption measures and initiated steps to streamline government functioning. 

The present Chief Minister, Pema Khandu, assumed office in July 2016 and has been steering the state towards progress under the banner of the Bharatiya Janata Party. Khandu, the son of former Chief Minister Dorjee Khandu, has continued the legacy of his predecessors while bringing his unique vision to the forefront. 

Pema Khandu's administration has prioritized infrastructure development, with a special emphasis on road connectivity to remote areas. His government has also concentrated on harnessing the potential of renewable energy sources, aligning with broader national goals for sustainable development. The Chief Minister's commitment to transparency and good governance has been evident through initiatives aimed at reducing corruption and improving service delivery. 

In the realm of education, Khandu has sought to elevate the quality of schools and higher education institutions. Efforts to modernize and digitize education delivery systems have been undertaken, reflecting a forward-looking approach towards human resource development in the state. 

While facing challenges such as geographical isolation and diverse tribal cultures, Pema Khandu's leadership has been characterized by a pragmatic and inclusive approach. His tenure has seen concerted efforts to bridge gaps in socio-economic development, ensuring that the benefits of progress reach every corner of Arunachal Pradesh. 

Chief Ministers of Arunachal Pradesh, both past and present, have played instrumental roles in shaping the state's trajectory. From the early days of establishment to the present era of dynamic governance under Pema Khandu, each leader has left an imprint on the state's journey, contributing to its development and progress. As Arunachal Pradesh continues to evolve, the contributions of these leaders stand as testaments to the resilience and determination of the people and their leadership.

Chief Ministers of Meghalaya

 

Meghalaya, the abode of clouds, has witnessed a succession of dynamic leaders who have steered the state through its developmental journey. Each Chief Minister has left an indelible mark on the socio-economic and political landscape, contributing to the state's progress. As we delve into the annals of Meghalaya's political history, it is essential to celebrate the contributions of all former Chief Ministers and shed light on the contemporary achievements under the leadership of Conrad Sangma. 

W.A. Sangma, the first Chief Minister of Meghalaya, assumed office in 1970 and played a pivotal role in shaping the nascent state. His tenure was marked by the establishment of crucial institutions, laying the foundation for Meghalaya's administrative framework. W.A. Sangma's visionary leadership set the stage for future Chief Ministers, emphasizing the importance of education, infrastructure, and tribal welfare. 

Following in his footsteps, successive Chief Ministers like D.D. Lapang, B.B. Lyngdoh, and S.C. Marak continued to build on the foundations laid by their predecessors. D.D. Lapang, with multiple stints as Chief Minister, focused on economic development and social welfare. B.B. Lyngdoh, with his commitment to tribal rights, contributed significantly to the protection and preservation of Meghalaya's unique cultural identity. S.C. Marak, during his tenure, concentrated on addressing security concerns and enhancing law enforcement, ensuring the safety of the state's residents. 

The tenure of Mukul Sangma, the Chief Minister from 2010 to 2018, witnessed notable strides in education, healthcare, and rural development. His government launched innovative schemes to uplift marginalized communities, emphasizing inclusive growth. Mukul Sangma's commitment to sustainable development and environmental conservation left an enduring impact, aligning Meghalaya with global goals for a greener future. 

In March 2018, Conrad Sangma assumed office as the Chief Minister of Meghalaya, bringing with him a youthful vigor and a modern approach to governance. Under his leadership, Meghalaya has witnessed a renewed focus on infrastructure development, with an emphasis on connectivity through road and digital networks. The "Restart Meghalaya Mission," launched in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, showcased Conrad Sangma's commitment to economic revival and job creation. 

One of the key achievements of the present Chief Minister has been the prioritization of education. The introduction of the "One Citizen, One Tree" initiative not only reflects his environmental consciousness but also underlines the importance of education in shaping responsible citizens. The initiative aims to instill a sense of environmental responsibility in every citizen by promoting tree plantation and conservation. 

Furthermore, Conrad Sangma's emphasis on tourism has led to initiatives like the "Explore Meghalaya" campaign, aimed at showcasing the state's natural beauty and cultural richness to the world. The Chief Minister's efforts have borne fruit, as Meghalaya has witnessed an upswing in tourist arrivals, contributing to the state's economic growth. 

The Chief Ministers of Meghalaya, past, and present, have played a crucial role in shaping the destiny of this enchanting state. From the establishment of foundational institutions to the pursuit of modern, sustainable development, each leader has left an enduring legacy. Conrad Sangma, with his contemporary vision and commitment to progress, continues to lead Meghalaya towards a future that balances tradition and modernity, ensuring a prosperous and sustainable tomorrow for the people of the abode of clouds.

Chief Ministers of Manipur

 

Manipur, nestled in the northeastern part of India, has witnessed a series of dynamic leaders who have played pivotal roles in shaping the state's political landscape and contributing to its socio-economic development. The Chief Ministers of Manipur, past and present, have faced numerous challenges and undertaken significant initiatives to address the needs of the diverse population. In this article, we will delve into the contributions of former Chief Ministers and shed light on the developmental efforts of the incumbent Chief Minister, N. Biren Singh. 

One of the prominent figures in Manipur's political history is Rishang Keishing, who served as the Chief Minister from 1980 to 1988. Keishing's tenure marked an era of political stability, and his leadership focused on fostering unity among the various communities in the state. During his term, he implemented policies to promote inclusive growth and initiated infrastructure projects that laid the foundation for Manipur's development. 

Wangkhem Singh, who assumed office in 1994, concentrated on improving the state's education system and healthcare facilities. His administration emphasized the importance of human development, leading to advancements in the education sector and enhanced healthcare services for the people of Manipur. Singh's tenure saw an increased emphasis on skill development and vocational training, contributing to the overall progress of the state. 

O. Ibobi Singh, who served as Chief Minister for multiple terms, played a crucial role in steering Manipur through both developmental challenges and political uncertainties. Under his leadership, the state witnessed advancements in infrastructure, with a focus on road connectivity and rural development. Singh also implemented policies to promote economic growth, encouraging investments and job creation. 

The current Chief Minister, N. Biren Singh, assumed office in 2017 and secured re-election in March 2022, a testament to his leadership and the trust bestowed upon him by the people of Manipur. Singh's tenure has been marked by a commitment to addressing the pressing issues facing the state. One of his notable achievements has been in the realm of law and order, where he implemented measures to strengthen security and maintain peace in the region. 

Under Chief Minister N. Biren Singh, there has been a concerted effort to boost infrastructure development, particularly in improving road connectivity and transportation networks. This has not only facilitated easier movement within the state but has also played a crucial role in connecting Manipur with the rest of the country. 

The Chief Minister's focus on promoting sports and youth development has been commendable. Initiatives to identify and nurture sporting talent at the grassroots level have been implemented, leading to the emergence of Manipur as a sporting powerhouse in the country. Singh's commitment to the welfare of youth is reflected in various schemes aimed at skill development and employment generation. 

Chief Ministers of Manipur, both past and present, have played pivotal roles in shaping the destiny of the state. From fostering unity to addressing developmental challenges, each leader has left a distinct mark on Manipur's history. Chief Minister N. Biren Singh's current term reflects a continuation of this legacy, with a strong focus on infrastructure development, youth empowerment, and maintaining peace and security in the region. As Manipur marches forward, the contributions of these leaders remain integral to the state's journey towards progress and prosperity.

Rivers in Eastern and North-Eastern India

 

Eastern and North-Eastern India is a land of abundant natural beauty and rich biodiversity. The region is home to a multitude of rivers that play a vital role in shaping the culture, society, ecology, and economy of the area. In this article, we will explore some of the major rivers that flow through this enchanting part of India and delve into their cultural, social, ecological, and economic significance.

 

Meghna River: The Meghna River, one of the largest in the region, flows through Bangladesh, originating from the Brahmaputra River in India. It is a lifeline for both countries, serving as a significant trade route and source of freshwater for agriculture. The river sustains a diverse ecosystem and supports various fish species, making it a crucial resource for the livelihood of the people living along its banks. 

Lohit River: Lohit River, a tributary of the Brahmaputra, flows through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. Its pristine waters, surrounded by lush forests, make it a popular destination for nature enthusiasts. The river plays a pivotal role in supporting agriculture in the region and is of religious significance to the local communities. 

Ichamati River: The Ichamati River flows through West Bengal and Bangladesh, forming a natural border between the two regions. It not only supports agriculture but also serves as an essential source of freshwater for the local population, making it a symbol of unity and cooperation between India and Bangladesh. 

Subansiri River: Originating from Tibet, the Subansiri River flows through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam before joining the Brahmaputra. It is known for its powerful currents and pristine surroundings, making it a prime spot for adventure enthusiasts. The river's water is harnessed for hydropower generation, contributing significantly to the region's energy needs. 

Manas River: The Manas River, which flows through Bhutan and Assam, is the lifeline of the Manas National Park. This UNESCO World Heritage site is home to an incredible array of wildlife, including the endangered Bengal tiger and Indian rhinoceros. The river's ecological significance cannot be overstated, as it supports a diverse ecosystem and provides a source of livelihood for the indigenous communities living in the region. 

Ajay River: The Ajay River, also known as the Ajoy River, flows through the Indian state of West Bengal. It is a vital water source for irrigation, enabling the cultivation of rice and other crops in the region. The river is an integral part of the socio-economic landscape of the area. 

Dibang River: The Dibang River originates in the Mishmi Hills of Arunachal Pradesh. Its turbulent waters are a source of adventure for rafting enthusiasts. The river's potential for hydropower generation has also led to several dam projects, which have both positive and negative impacts on the local ecology and economy. 

Doyang River: Flowing through the state of Nagaland, the Doyang River is known for its serene surroundings and rich aquatic life. The river is famous for the annual Amur Falcon migration, attracting birdwatchers and researchers from around the world. It is also used for fishing, providing a source of income for the local population. 

Mayurakshi River: The Mayurakshi River flows through the state of West Bengal, primarily serving agricultural and irrigation purposes. It is of cultural significance as well, as it is mentioned in ancient Indian literature and mythology. The river's banks are dotted with temples and historical sites, adding to its cultural charm. 

Jalangi River: The Jalangi River is a distributary of the Bhagirathi River and plays a crucial role in providing irrigation water to the fertile lands of Murshidabad district in West Bengal. It is not only essential for agriculture but also for the overall sustenance of the local populace. 

Jaldhaka River: Flowing through the North Bengal region, the Jaldhaka River is known for its picturesque landscapes. It is a source of freshwater for irrigation and sustenance, supporting the local agricultural economy. The river's surroundings attract tourists and nature lovers. 

Raidak River: The Raidak River is a transboundary river that flows through Bhutan and West Bengal. It is part of the Brahmaputra River system and is known for its crystal-clear waters and stunning scenery. The river contributes to agriculture and provides opportunities for tourism and adventure sports. 

Tel River: Tel River flows through Jharkhand and West Bengal. It is essential for the agricultural activities in the region, particularly for paddy cultivation. The river has religious significance, and its waters are often used in rituals and ceremonies. 

Wainganga River: The Wainganga River flows through the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh. It is a major tributary of the Godavari River. The river plays a critical role in the irrigation and water supply of the region, supporting the agriculture and economy of the area. 

Kameng River: The Kameng River flows through the beautiful landscapes of Arunachal Pradesh. It is a vital water source for agriculture and sustenance for the local communities. The river's clear waters and scenic surroundings make it a destination for nature lovers and trekkers. 

Rupnarayan River: Rupnarayan River, also known as the Rupnarayana River, flows through West Bengal. It plays a significant role in irrigation and agriculture in the region. The river's course is dotted with historical sites, adding to its cultural importance. 

Subarnarekha River: The Subarnarekha River, flowing through Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Odisha, is known for its golden sands and diverse aquatic life. It supports agriculture, fishing, and is a source of livelihood for the local communities. The river is also mentioned in ancient texts and folklore, adding to its cultural importance. 

Sabari River: The Sabari River flows through the eastern region of India and serves as a natural border between Odisha and Chhattisgarh. It supports agriculture, fishing, and is a source of freshwater for the local population. The river's course through dense forests and hills makes it a scenic and ecologically significant waterway. 

Hunza River: The Hunza River, situated in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, is a tributary of the mighty Indus River. It is vital for agriculture and the overall livelihood of the local population. The river's surroundings are known for their breathtaking beauty, attracting tourists and adventure enthusiasts. 

The rivers of Eastern and North-Eastern India are not merely water bodies but lifelines that shape the cultural, social, ecological, and economic fabric of the region. These rivers sustain diverse ecosystems, support agriculture, provide freshwater for millions of people, and offer opportunities for recreation and adventure. They are also woven into the rich tapestry of Indian culture and spirituality, often finding mentions in folklore, religious texts, and historical narratives.

 

Tourism in Mizoram

  

Mizoram, the state in the north eastern part of India is a wonderful place due to its dramatic landscape and pleasant climate. Mizoram is situated at the foothills of the Himalayas and the flora and fauna is rich here. The churches, waterfalls, wildlife, stunning lakes and the villages make Mizoram one of the most coveted destinations in India for tourism.

Major Tourist Spots of Mizoram
Major tourist destinations of Mizoram are Aizawl, Champhai, Khawbung, Thenzawl, Lunglei. The spots have been discussed in brief below:

Aizawl: The popular places of Aizawl are Bara Bazar, Mizoram State Museum, Durtlang Hills, Baktawng Village, Solomon's Temple and Lalruanga Lung.

Champhai: Murlen National Park, Mura Puk, Rih dil, Zokhawthar, Hnahlan, Chawngtlai are the famous places for tourism of Chanphai.

Khawbung: Mizo Hlakungpui Mual, Kawtchhuah Ropui, Dungtlang, Lianchhiari Tlang, Lianchhiari Tui Thuhruk, Lungdawhkan, Tlaikuang, Chuaibengi Lung, Puanvawrh Puk, Thasiama Seno Neihna, Fiara Tui, Lamsial Puk, Tan Tlang, Kungawrhi Hnuhluhna, Far Puk, Lungkeiphaw Tial, Chhura Chirawt Lung, Chawngvungi Lungdawh, Far Tlangpui Lungphun, Lungpher Puk, Lungsen Puk etc are the popular tourist places of Khawbung.

Thenzawl: Vantawng Falls, Benkhuaia Thlan, Vaibiak, Tualvungi Thlan, Chawngchilhi Puk, Tuirihiau Falls, Thenzawl Deer Park are the popular places of Thenzawl for tourism.

Lunglei: Lunglei has tourist attractions like the Zobawk Sports Academy, Kawmzawl Park, Khawnglung Wildlife Sanctuary, Saikuti Hall, Thuamluaia Mual etc.

Hill Stations of Mizoram
Hmuifang Tlang, Reiek Tlang and Vanzau are the popular hill stations of the state. They are detailed in brief below:

Hmuifang: It is about 50 km from Aizawl with an elevation of 1619 meters. The mountain is still covered with virgin forests reserved since the Mizo Chief's time. Hmuifang is on the way to Lunglei.

Reiek: It is situated at an elevation of 1548 meters offering astounding view of the surrounding valleys and hills. Reiek Hill is surrounded by thick lush green temperate trees and bushes.

Vanzau: It is located in the mountain range of Chalfilh Tlang near Buhban village at an elevation of 1721 meters above sea level. It provides views of its surrounding mountain ranges and nearby villages.

Explore more of Mizoram in the link below:

https://www.indianetzone.com/26/mizoram_tourism.htm 

Tribal Jewellery of North-East India

Tribal Jewellery of North Eastern states are a sign of prestige and a form of distinguishing each tribe.

The Seven Sister states of North East are the contiguous states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. Except for Assam and Tripura, the region has a predominantly tribal population.
Tribal Jewellery of Arunachal Pradesh
There are around 20 major tribes and sub-tribes in Arunachal Pradesh.

Tribal Jewellery of Assam
Assam has a rich tradition of manufacturing gold jewellery dating back several centuries.

Tribal Jewellery of Manipur
The jewelleries of Manipur exhibit real rich traditions. Precious metals like gold and silver go into the making of Manipuri jewelleries.

Tribal Jewellery of Mizoram
About 95 percent of current Mizoram population is of diverse tribal origins. This is the highest concentration of tribal people among all states of India.

Tribal Jewellery of Nagaland
Jewellery is an important part of Naga identity, with the entire tribe wearing similar bead jewellery.

Read More :- Tribal Jewellery of North-East India