Vishnu Purana

  

Vishnu Purana, also known as the Puranratna, or the gems of Puranas, is one among the eighteen major Indian Puranas. It is the sacred text of the Vaishnava branch of Hinduism. In this work Vishnu is praised and glorified as the highest being, as the one and only god, with whom Brahma and Lord Shiva are one, and as the creator and preserver of the world. Similar to the other Puranas, the Vishnu Purana also narrates the story of the creation of Cosmos to its destruction at the end. The text of Vishnu Purana opens with the introduction of the four Yugas at the beginning of the text. In addition to these, there are widespread sections on lineage of the celebrated kings, heroes and demigods of ancient India, including those from the epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata. It has been enumerated in the text of Vishnu Purana, if a man gives as a gift a book of Vishnu Purana on the full-moon day in the month of Asadha (July) with Jaladhenu he will attain the sacred Vishnupada.

Origin of Vishnu Purana
In the Vishnu Purana the reference of the Maurya Empire is found. Hence the scholars have surmised it to be composed in the first or second century AD.

Composition of Vishnu Purana
It is divided into six Adisas or Khandas or chapters. It deals with the events of Varahakalpa and contains 23,000 Shlokas. Its character is more that of a unified composition than of a mere compilation, which the case with most of the other Puranas is. It has been narrated by the narrator himself that Vyasa, adept in the composition of Puranas, composed this Puranasarirhita with akhyanas, upikhyanas, githas and kalpanirnayas. A Suta named Romaharsana was Vyasa's chief disciple. Vyasa in order to propagate his teachings among his disciples gave that Samhita to that Suta. Romaharsana had six disciples named Sumati, Agnivarcas, Mitrayus, Sarhsapiyana, Akrtavrana and Savarni. Of these, Akrtavrana, Savarni and Sarhsapiyana born in the Kasyapagotra have composed Puranasamhitas, which are based on the teachings of Vyasa described in Samhita. There is yet another Samhita composed by Romaharsana which became the basis of the sarirhitas of his three disciples. The narrator says that he composed the Vishnu Purana based on the above four Samhitas.

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Education in Ancient India

  

Education in ancient India had a deep impact in the upliftment and advancement of the early society and over all development. India is pregnant with a rich tradition of knowledge and learning from the earliest days of Indian civilization. There are several literary sources, such as the Vedas and other Hindu texts and scriptures, which offer references about education system of the ancient societies. The Mahabharata, some Dharma sutras, particularly those of Gautama Buddha and Apastamba and the Manu Smriti, are the principal works dealing with the system of education in ancient India.

History of Education in Ancient India
From the Vedic to the Brahman period, literature and additional literature sustained to be created. Even in the Brahman period, education continued to be looked upon as the means to knowledge. It has the same objectives that Vedic education had. However, with the passage of time and a change in the needs of society, the importance attached to them underwent a change. In this period, the following objectives were ascribed to education.

1. Self-control
2. Development of character
3. Generation of sociability or social awareness
4. Integral development of personality
5. Propagation of purity
6. Preservation of knowledge and culture.

Education in this age was unrelenting to carry on the foundations offered to it during the Vedic period, but a certain firmness and narrowness now marked its implementation. Education now aimed at equipping the student for the struggle for existence. After the "Upanayana" or introduction ceremony, teachers imparted education to their students according to the latter's interests, tendencies and nature. Celibacy was rigidly observed by the students. Teachers paid full attention to the psychological make-up of their students while teaching. Corporal or physical punishment was regarded as the last resort of administration and discipline. It has been stated in the Manu Smriti and Yajyavalka.

Gurukul System
Education in Ancient India originated with the Gurukul system. This type of ancient Hindu school in India was residential in nature with the Shishyas or students and the Guru or teacher living in proximity within the same house. The students resided together irrespective of their social standing. However, several temples and community centers regularly took the role of schools. In addition to that ancient Indian education achieved a noticeable position in the early Vedic period, beginning in the 1200 B.C. In the Vedic days, the teaching of the four Vedas, the hymns and ritual practices were seen. The Vedas included the Sanskrit language which in turn became the language of classical learning. Besides the pronunciation of the Vedas and their implication, phonology, metrics, elementary grammar, and etymology were also taught. Though, the Vedic education was not transmitted to people of low strata, yet the Vedic system inspired the modern day education system. The school in the ancient education system lasted for 7 to 8 hours a day. In fair weather; classes were held under the shelter of the tree. In the rainy season schools ran under thatched roof. Temple colleges of the past had been of great renown for having spacious buildings for classrooms and the residential complexes of the students and the "Gurus". Gurukuls and Ashrams were generally situated on the river banks or on the lake to attain the knowledge.

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Indian Puranic Villages

  

 Indian Puranic Villages are the origin point of the Indian social structure, its rules, regulations, norms, and lifestyle. These villages were small units of clustered households, living within the realm of spirituality and simplicity. There were several villages in India during the Puranic age and they were classified according to the prevailing kingdoms. These villages followed the administration of the ruling kings during that time.

Occupation in Indian Puranic Villages
The primary occupation during the Puranic age was the priesthood, thus every household had certain divine prejudices. These beliefs were followed down across the generations to be instilled in the present society. The Indian Puranic villages reflected unity and solemn social practices. The traditional festivals and principles came down from these villages. Several statues, temples, and monuments of the Indian Puranic villages are still revered and worshipped in various parts of the nation.

Puranic Villages in India
Several Indian Puranic villages have been excavated to develop them into heritage spots and historic sites. Some of the Puranic Villages in India are mentioned below:

Sarnath: The Sarnath and its surrounding areas make some of the prominent villages of Puranic India. It is situated 10 kilometers north-east of Varanasi City near the confluence of Yamuna and Ganga rivers in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. There is a popular deer park in Sarnath, where Gautama Buddha was known to first teach "Dharma". This is where the existence of Buddhist Sangha prevailed through enlightenment of the Kondana.

Dwarka: The Dwarka is an ancient city known for its religious influence across the country. It is the municipality of the Devbhoomi Dwarka district the Indian state of Gujarat. It is situated on the Okhamandal Peninsula towards the western shore on the right bank of the Gomti River. It is also one the "Chardhams" of Hindu pilgrims. It is often recognized as the ancient kingdom of Lord Krishna and believed to be the first capital of Gujarat.

Vrindavan: The Vrindavan is another holy Hindu and historical place at the Mathura district of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Vaishnavism considers it to be one of their most sacred places. It is situated in the region of Braj Bhoomi. As per Hinduism, Lord Krishna is known to spend most of his childhood here.

Bhitora village: The Bhitora was site of the sage Bhrigu. It was an important source of learning and the Bajpai family from Mauzmabad has played an important role in the development of this village. Famous for their grandeur and literary frame of mind, the people inhabiting Indian Puranic villages played a vital role in the formation of Indian society from its tender age.

Kanakhala: Kanakhala is the name of a village as mentioned in the Linga Purana. In this village the great sacrifice or Yajna of the Daksha took place. Gangadwara and Haridwar together make the Kanakhala village.

Kuntala: Kuntala Village is a village and Mandal located at Telengana in Andhra Pradesh. It is situated between the Nirmal Bhainsa highways towards kallur junction. It is mostly known for its waterfalls.

Harappa: The Harappa is an archaeological site presently located in Pakistan towards 24 kilometers west of Sahiwal. It is one of the most known Indian puranic village.

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Vedic Literature

Vedic literature glorifies Vedic India. ‘Vedas’, a Sanskrit phrase, implies knowledge. It is the traditional faith that Vedas are ‘apuruseya’ (not composed by human beings), which was known to be a direct revelation of God, hence named shruti. Scholars believed that Vedic Literature originates long before the literary tradition started in India. However the oldest text, Rig-Veda has been traced back to the 11th century. The Vedic literature consists of the Vedas, Upanishads, Vedangas, Sutras, Upavedas, Shastras and Puranas.

The Vedic period lasted for a millennium encompassing the late bronze & Iron Age. As far as the researches are concerned, the Vedic Literatures are composed in 1500 B.C, over a period of years. Vedic Literature saw its crest after the composition of the mantra texts, frequently called Samhita texts. With the composition of the mantra texts, shakas were established all over northern India. Usually Shakas are the theological schools that were focused on the learning of the Vedic Mantras.

The Vedas can be classified into categories of texts, traditionally the Samhitas or mantras, Brahmans, Aryanyak and Upanishads. The Vedas, as often termed as the Sutra literature can also be classified into Shrautasutras and Grahyasutras.

The Vedic Samhitas or the Mantras are mainly the metric texts and there are four Vedic samhitas- Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. Sometimes the term ‘Vedas’ is used to signify those Samhitas. The Samhitas are the oldest stratum of Vedic texts. As ‘Vedic Concordance’ of Bloomfield, an eminent scholar records, Vedas have 89000 padas, of which 72000 are in Samhitas.

The Rig Veda: This oldest existing Indian text is an anthology of 1028 hymns and 10,600 verses devoted to the Rig Vedic deities, compiled in 10 mandalas or books. According to the different opinions forwarded by the historians, saints composed Rig Veda for a period of 500 years in the Sapta – Sindhu, present day Punjab region of Indian Subcontinent. The Indian Rig Veda is closely synonymous with the Iranian and Andronovo culture.

The Sama Veda: The name ‘Sama’ derived from the word ‘saman’ means the ‘song of praise’. The Sama Veda is the ‘Veda of chants’ or ‘Knowledge of melodies’. Sama Veda is a compilation of 1875 verses, some of which are the repetitive imitations of the Rig Veda. It serves as a song book for the priests who take part in public worship. A priest singing in the rituals is commonly called ‘udgati’ or ‘cantor’. A fixed style was followed by the priests while enchanting. Two major shakas are associated with this Veda- Ranayianiya and Jainimiya.

The Yajur Veda: It consists of cryptic prose mantras, some parts are borrowed from the Rig Veda. Each of the mantras in the Yajur Veda are associated with specific sacrificial rites, not merely Soma offering. Two major recessions of the Yajur Veda are "White" & "Black". The "White" discusses only those verses required for the sacrifices but do not explain the implication of those verses but the "black" Yajurveda contain specific explanations of the work to be performed.

The Atharva Veda: depicts the "Knowledge of the Atharvans" or the "Agnisara". As it has been pointed by Apte, the scholarly historian, "atharvan" is a priest who worships fire and Soma. It is a collection of 760 hymns and about one-sixth hymns are the imitation of Rig Veda. The Atharva Veda has least connection with the sacrifices and rituals but involves the incantations required for prevention of demons and disasters.

The Brahmanas are the prose literature, codified in a procedural fashion, which depicts the sacrificial rituals, their meanings and a complete commentary on the usage, implication and their significant effect of those rituals. Brahmanas are considered to be the heart of Indian Philosophy, describing the concepts of Karma and Samsara and the significance of the four stages of the life of a Hindu Brahmin, namely- Brahmacharya, Grihasthya and Vanprastha and Sanyas. It also provides a perception of the spirituality and supernaturalism of the Vedanta philosophy. Each of the Brahmans are associated with one of the Samhitas and according to that one of the shakas or schools. The Brahmans may also include the Aryanaka or the Upanishads.

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